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Diplomacy as a family business. The Casatis as Spanish-Milanese envoys in Lucerne and Chur (1660-1700)The astonishing family career of the Casatis contradicts widespread impressions of early modern diplomacy. This monograph explains how a Spanish-Milanese diplomatic dynasty shrewdly managed, using a highly complex network of confessional, social and cultural connections, to concentrate and deploy its resources upon key actors, and put itself beyond competition from potential challengers. “Other than following God and their own self-interest, this people knows no further impulse,” was the devastating judgment of Alfonso Casati in 1674 concerning the Swiss Confederates. The diplomats nonetheless had to accommodate the needs of these local hosts, or lose their trust and that of their royal employer, the Spanish king. In order to fulfill the demands placed upon him as a diplomat, Alfonso Casati, like most envoys in early modern Europe, periodically reached into his own pockets. In contrast to many contemporaries, however, he did not respond to the costly requirements of the job by seeking to be relieved of his duties. On the contrary, he laid the ground for ensuring that his own son became the fourth generation representative in a nearly continuous position held by the same family. Tapping extensive source materials which are interpreted from the perspective of various historical actors, this study not only reconstructs the position and influence of an extraordinary diplomatic family, but also shines new light on a colorful history of patronage, corruption and politics in the external relations of the Confederacy and Graubünden.

Diplomats --- Casati Family. --- Switzerland --- Spain --- Milan (Italy) --- History --- diplomacy --- spanish crown --- Alte Eidgenossenschaft --- Chur --- Frankreich --- Gesandter --- Luzern --- Madrid --- Mailand --- Spanien

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The main focus of this study is a methodological analysis of private letters written by Spanish emigrants from the Americas to their relatives and friends back in Europe, with an intensive discussion about the interaction and blurring between the public and the private spheres in private correspondences, kept and preserved in a public space (the archive). Questions of source criticism and a detailed assessment of the scientific production on the topics of letter writing and private correspondences in general, and emigrant-letters, specially, constitute the first part of the study. Emigrant letters from the colonial period can be found in a wide array of archival sources. Private archives of noble families, merchant houses and merchant institutions often hold large vaults of correspondence of some prominent member, but also public archives in Spain provides several types of documents containing private letters: notarial records and files from court cases do contain a good number of letters. A very important source for Spanish emigrant letters, because they were written by the greatest number of different letter writers, stem from solicitations for emigration licenses, which were required by Spanish subjects in order to legally cross the Atlantic Ocean. Depending on the varying contexts of their archiving, the analysis of the letters' contents requires different methods and peculiar precautions and aspects have to be reflected to reach an acceptable degree of hermeneutical understanding of each single text. The private and intimate, innate to the form of private or familiar letters as a genre, stand in a fascinating contrast to the manifold public contexts present from the production of the letter itself, to the transport, reshipment, lecture, all the way to its archiving (and lecture by the modern scholar). The central corpus of analysis are the mentioned letters from emigration solicitudes, commonly called cartas de llamada or recruitment letters. With their help, hopeful solicitors tried to prove that their husbands wanted them in order to reunite in their new home, or that a relative (quite often an uncle or cousin) wanted them to come and had work to offer. Letters of this type were also the basis of the most important existing edition of emigrant letters by Enrique Otte from 1988, a work which is generally considered the spark that triggered interest in such letters as historical sources within the historiography of Spanish America. His work, which was limited to the years 1540-1614, was followed by several other editions of emigrant letters, some of them also using cartas de llamada. However, none of these editions offered a systematical comparison of the existing editions or tried to exhaustively identify the archival series containing such letters. Most editions also made very limited use of the documents surrounding the letters in the solicitudes. Last - but not least - one has to state a complete chaos concerning the practice and standards for the edition of the original documents, which differ considerably - methodologically and qualitatively. This study, thus, Also makes an effort to develop a solid basis for possible future editions. Searching in the Archivo General de Indias in Seville, 1213 hitherto unknown and unpublished letters could be added to the 1017 cartas de llamada already published in other editions. This study analysis this closed corpus quantitatively in demographic and temporal-spatial aspects and qualitatively tries to answer question about the use of the letters in the keeping-up of familiar ties and organization of chain-emigration.

Spaniards --- Immigrants --- Correspondence. --- Spain --- Latin America --- Emigration and immigration --- History. --- emigration --- letters --- methodology --- communication --- Spanish America --- correspondence --- Cádiz --- Como --- Hektar --- Portugal --- Spanien --- Vizekönigreich Neuspanien

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Geology. Earth sciences --- Geology --- Géologie --- Periodicals --- Périodiques --- Geologie. --- Spanien. --- geosciences --- earth sciences --- geology --- Geology. --- Spain. --- Allgemeine Geologie --- Geognosie --- Dynamische Geologie --- Geowissenschaften --- Geognosy --- Geoscience --- Earth sciences --- Natural history --- Isbāniyā --- Spain --- Espagne --- Estado Español --- España --- Espanja --- Hispania --- Spanier --- Iberische Halbinsel --- Spanien --- Hiszpania --- Spanish State --- Sefarad --- Sepharad --- Shpanye --- Shpanie --- Reino de España --- Kingdom of Spain --- Geologie --- Espainiako Erresuma --- Espanha --- Espanya --- Isupania --- Regne d'Espanya --- Reiaume d'Espanha --- Reino d'Espanya --- Reinu d'España --- Supein

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Music --- Musique --- Periodicals --- Periodicals. --- Périodiques --- Music. --- Musik. --- Musikwissenschaft. --- Spain. --- Spanien. --- Arts and Humanities --- General and Others --- Performing Arts, Travel and Leisure --- musicology --- ethnomusicology --- Spanish music --- history of music --- classical and popular music --- Ancient music --- Music, Ancient --- Art music --- Art music, Western --- Classical music --- Musical compositions --- Musical works --- Serious music --- Western art music --- Western music (Western countries) --- Espanja --- Spanien --- Hiszpania --- Spanish State --- España --- Estado Español --- Espagne --- Hispania --- Sefarad --- Sepharad --- Shpanye --- Shpanie --- Reino de España --- Kingdom of Spain --- Espainiako Erresuma --- Espanha --- Espanya --- Isupania --- Regne d'Espanya --- Reiaume d'Espanha --- Reino d'Espanya --- Reinu d'España --- Supein --- Musik --- Musikwissenschaft --- Musikgeschichte --- Isbāniyā --- Spain --- Spanier --- Iberische Halbinsel --- spanish music

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Herpetology --- Reptiles --- Amphibians --- Amphibians. --- Herpetology. --- Reptiles. --- Spain. --- Herpetofauna --- Herpetozoa --- Herps --- Herptiles --- Reptilia --- Sauria --- Amphibia --- Batrachia --- Espanja --- Spanien --- Hiszpania --- Spanish State --- España --- Estado Español --- Espagne --- Hispania --- Sefarad --- Sepharad --- Shpanye --- Shpanie --- Reino de España --- Kingdom of Spain --- Zoology --- Espainiako Erresuma --- Espanha --- Espanya --- Isupania --- Regne d'Espanya --- Reiaume d'Espanha --- Reino d'Espanya --- Reinu d'España --- Supein